Cellular Automata Machines Pdf Download REPACK

Cellular Automata Machines Pdf Download REPACK

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Decision-making refers to the strategy or method of decision. It is a process involving ideas and decisions about certain events. It is a complex process in terms of operations. It includes information collection, processing, judgments, and conclusions. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a subject that looks into computer simulations and assesses certain thinking processes and intelligent behaviours of humans (such as learning, reasoning, thinking, planning, etc.). AI is mainly based on the principles of computer intelligence, enabling computers to have similar intelligence as human brains. For decision-making problems, AI and machine learning (ML) can help us make the best choices. The most commonly used artificial intelligence and learning machine tools for decision making are genetic algorithms, cellular automata, and agent-based models.

We classify the main variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus representing a given biological sequence coded as a symbolic digital sequence and by its evolution by a cellular automata with a properly chosen rule. The spike protein, common to all variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is then by the picture of the cellular automaton evolution yielding a visible representation of important features of the protein. We use information theory Hamming distance between different stages of the evolution of the cellular automaton for seven variants relative to the original Wuhan/China virus. We show that our approach allows to classify and group variants with common ancestors and same mutations. Although being a simpler method, it can be used as an alternative for building phylogenetic trees.

A protein can be depicted as a primary structure formed by a sequence of long strings of characters containing all information: structure, function, hydrophobicity and different motifs. Several researchers have studied how to extract different properties, e. g. hydrophobicity13,14,15,16, fractality17,18, geometric and thermodynamic aspects19,20,21. Cellular Automata have been widely used to model complex systems with simple, easy-to-understand rules22, and in recent years many papers were devoted study protein related problems using this approach. Sleit and Mdain23 proposed a protein folding model based on cellular automata, with straightforward evolutionary rules based on the hydrophobicity of amino acids. Other works dedicated to the same problem include24,25,26. Cellular Automata Image (CAI) analysis27 is a powerful tool to classify protein structure28,29,30 and virus taxonomy31. These images can contain important information on the modeled system, for example, CAI allows to differentiate similar systems with respect to those significantly different. The identification of functions, structures, location, and common ancestry of a protein sequence can be performed by a comparison with other know proteins in databases, using alignment, similarity, and homology techniques32. In the present paper we propose a protein comparison approach using a cellular automaton image and the information theoretic Hamming metric for the distance between such images, as a measure of similarity and difference, applied to the spike protein. The distance is measured with respect to the S protein in the initial virus strain as first detected in Wuhan, and for the following Variants Of Concern (VOCs) with mutations of the Spike protein: Alpha (first identified in the United Kingdom), Beta (South Africa), Gamma (Brazil), Delta (India), and the more recent Omicron (South Africa), B.1.1.28, and P2 (Brazil). Our goal is to explicitly obtain the evolutionary relationships between these SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Cellular automata are discrete dynamical systems with simple local evolution rules and, despite this, can show complex behavior22. The rules take into account the state of neighboring cells, analogous to protein structure since physicochemical characteristics of neighboring amino acids influence the folding or function of the protein. The cellular automata considered here has four components: a grid, the set of states, the neighborhood of each state, and the local transition rule. Several possibilities were proposed for encoding the sequence of the 20 types of amino acids in a protein: an 8-digit code for each amino acid33, or codes reflecting physicochemical characteristics and degeneracy, based on rules of similarity and complementarity: based on molecule recognition and information theory, with a 5-digit code for each amino acid34, or by representing the amino acid sequences using the hydrophobicity index of each amino acid28. The latter in the present work as it allows to better describe the evolutionary relationships between SARS-CoV-2 variants, resulting in smaller distantes for variants with the same mutations and those that emerged in the same period throughout the pandemic. It also groups together variants that share a mutation in the amino acid N501Y. Coronaviruses that cause MERS, SARS and COVID-19 diseases are all closely related, and it is natural to expect that the same coding scheme will be a good representation of the SARS-CoV-2 proteins based in the same molecules. This is reinforced by the discussion in35 (see particularly Figure 3 of this paper) that shows that the Spike proteins of these viruses have very similar characteristics. Different binary codes were used to distinguish SARS-CoV viruses from other coronaviruses, such as the one used by Xiao et al.34, which is a simpler code and does not take into account physicochemical amino acids.

The cellular automaton for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein using available genomic data data for Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, B.1.1.28, P2 variant and the original strain are available at5 and38 for Omicron, represented with the coding in Table 1, and evolved according to the rule in Fig. 1 over 1000 time steps. Deletions in the protein sequence were represented by the code 00000 and insertions by introducing the deletion code in the other proteins at the corresponding position. Figure 2 shows the resulting image representing the evolution of the automaton for each considered variant, where the V shaped patterns characteristic of SARS-CoV viruses31 are clearly visible. Figure 3 shows the time evolution of the Hamming distance \(D_H\) for each variant with respect to the original Wuhan strain. For the initial steps the distance has small values, as expect for variants of the same virus, and increases with t up to an asymptotic constant value after approximately \(t=400\) steps. The small number of mutations, if compared to the number of amino-acids in the protein and measured by the small Hamming distance at \(t=0\), is amplified by the evolution of the cellular automata and results in quite different asymptotic values of \(D_H\), after an irregular transient of roughly 200 time steps. This allows us to classify the cellular automata as Wolfram Class IV, with an intermediate behavior between Classes II (periodical) and III (chaotic). Although the Omicron variant presents more mutations (and therefore a higher value of \(D_H\)) than other known VOCs, with 33 amino acid changes in the spike protein39, its distance plot remains close to the variants sharing the N501Y mutation (see Table 2 for the characteristic mutations of each variant). This large number of modifications seems to be linked to an increased transmissibility and possibly smaller efficiency of curent vaccines40.

Left: Hamming distance as a function of step t for the time evolution of the cellular automata associated to the spike protein between each variant and the initial Wuhan strain. Right: Zoom over the initial values of t.

Table 2 shows the different mutations present in each main variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. We then see from Fig. 3 that the present approach groups the variants carrying the N501Y mutation, the sense that final stationary Hamming distance between these variants and the original are more closer and with higher values. The Gamma and P2 variants are also closer as they have the same clade B.1.1.28 (note that the distance for P2 and B.1.1.28 are practically the same in the Figure), while the Delta variant, which carries the P681R mutation unfamiliar to the other variants, is the one with smallest distance. We believe that the present approach is a straightforward way to measure evolutionary distances between SARS-CoV-2 variants, much simpler that other techniques as in41,42 were a normalized Laplacian pyramid is employed to measure pairwise similarities in cellular automata image wavelet images in order to build phylogenetic trees.

The approach presented here allows to cluster variants with common ancestors by using a cellular automaton and the asymptotic Hamming distance for the resulting images for each variant, as shown in Fig. 2, and is a more straightforward and simpler evolutionary classification of those variants, than other approaches such as alignment technique, similarity analysis and image processing. Iti particularly discerns the deviation of Omicron with respect to other variants, preserving the V shaped pattern characteristic of the SARS-CoV viruses, despite having the largest number of mutations among known variants, and grouping variants with the N501Y mutation. Furthermore, after just three iterations of the automaton for the protein in the Wuhan strain, the amino acid at position 501 changed from N to Y. This rapid convergence suggest an alternative explanation for the emergence of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma on three continents simultaneously, an evolutionary convergence. We also note that without degeneration, mutations could lead to unfavorable structures for the virus, making it easier to control its spread44. Cellular automata are a simple tool to extract meaningful information from proteins sequences, with a very low computational cost. We hope that the present work will contribute as an useful tool to build protein phylogenetic trees. 2b1af7f3a8